CHAPTER 7
You should read this chapter if you need to review or learn about
This chapter opens with a discussion of the phrase, one of the key building blocks of the sentence. There are several different kinds of phrases, including prepositional phrases (with the subcategories adjectival phrases and adverbial phrases), appositives, and verbals. Then, you’ll review the clause, a group of words with its own subject and verb.
A phrase is a group of words that functions in a sentence as a single part of speech. A phrase does not have a subject or a verb, so it cannot stand alone as an independent unit—it can function only as a part of speech. As you write, you use phrases to add detail by describing.
Phrases help you express yourself more clearly.
| Type of Phrase | Definition | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| Prepositional | Begins with a preposition and ends with a noun or pronoun | near the house over the moon under the desk |
| Adjectival | Prepositional phrase that functions as an adjective | Marci has a scarf with green stripes. |
| Adverbial | Prepositional phrase that functions as an adverb | The fans shouted with hoarse voices. |
| Appositive | Noun or pronoun that renames another noun or pronoun | Fran, a teacher, enjoys summer vacation. |
| Verbal | Verb form used as another part of speech | See Participle, Gerund, Infinitive. |
| Participle | Verbal phrase that functions as an adjective | Screaming loudly, the baby was disconsolate. |
| Gerund | Verbal phrase that functions as a noun | Working overtime requires great sacrifice. |
| Infinitive | Verbal phrase that functions as a noun, adjective, or adverb | To clean house on a spring day is depressing. |
A prepositional phrase is a group of words that begins with a preposition and ends with a noun or a pronoun. This noun or pronoun is called the “object of the preposition.”
| by the wall | near the closet | over the garage |
| with help | in the desert | below sea level |
When a prepositional phrase serves as an adjective, it’s called an adjectival phrase. An
adjectival phrase, as with an adjective, describes a noun or a pronoun. To find out if a
prepositional phrase is functioning as an adjectival phrase, see if it answers these questions: “Which one?” or “What kind?”
The cost of the jeans was surprisingly high.
The adjectival phrase “of the jeans” describes the noun cost.
The clown with the mask terrifies the children.
The adjectival phrase “with the mask” describes the noun clown.
When a prepositional phrase serves as an adverb, it’s called an adverbial phrase. In these
cases, it describes a verb, an adjective, or adverb. To find out if a prepositional phrase is
functioning as an adverbial phrase, see if it answers one of these questions: “Where?” “When?” “In what manner?” “To what extent?”
The Mets played at Shea Stadium.
The adverbial phrase “at Shea Stadium” modifies the verb played.
The game lasted into the fourteenth inning.
The adverbial phrase “into the fourteenth inning” modifies the verb lasted.
An appositive is a noun or a pronoun that renames another noun or pronoun. Appositives are placed directly after the nouns or pronouns they identify. Appositive phrases are nouns or pronouns with modifiers.
Lisa, a friend, should have understood my fear.A verbal is a verb form used as another part of speech. Verbals come in three varieties: participles, gerunds, and infinitives. Each type has a different function in a sentence:
Although a verbal doesn’t function as a verb in a sentence, it does retain two qualities of a verb:
A participle is a form of a verb that functions as an adjective. There are two kinds of participles: present participles and past participles.
Participle phrases contain a participle modified by an adverb or an adverbial phrase. They function as an adjective. A participle phrase can be placed before or after the word it describes.
A gerund is a form of a verb used as a noun. Gerunds can function as subjects, direct objects, indirect objects, objects of a preposition, predicate nominative, and appositives.
Like a participle, a gerund can be part of a phrase.
The infinitive is a form of the verb that comes after the word to and acts as a noun, adjective, or adverb. An infinitive phrase contains modifiers that together act as a single part of speech.
His goal, to get promoted before age 30, didn’t seem realistic.A clause is a group of words with its own subject and verb. Like phrases, clauses enrich your written and oral expression by adding details and making your meaning more exact. Clauses also allow you to combine ideas to show their relationship. This adds logic and cohesion to your speech and writing.
There are two types of clauses: independent clauses (main clauses) and dependent clauses(subordinate clauses and relative clauses).| Dependent Clause | Independent Clause |
|---|---|
| When opossums are playing ’possum, | they are not “playing.” |
| In the great fire of London in 1666, | half of London was burnt down. |
| For a period of one year before an election, | all office-seekers in the Roman Empire were |
| obliged to wear a certain white toga. |
Dependent clauses add additional information to the main clauses, but they are not necessary to complete the thought. Although each of the dependent clauses shown on the previous chart has a subject and a verb, it does not express a complete thought. As a result, it cannot stand alone.
A dependent clause often starts with a word that makes the clause unable to stand alone. Look back at the three dependent clauses in the chart on p. 102. The words used here are when, in, and for, respectively. These words are subordinating conjunctions.
You can’t determine whether a clause is independent or dependent from its length.
Either type of clause can be very long or very short—or somewhere in between.
Skilled writers often vary the length of their clauses to achieve rhythm, balance, and meaning in their writing.
Subordinating conjunctions link an independent clause to a dependent clause. Each subordinating conjunction expresses a relationship between the dependent clause and the independent clause. For example, some conjunctions show time order, while others show result or effect.
The following chart lists the subordinating conjunctions used most often and the relationships they express:
| Subordinating Conjunctions | Relationship |
|---|---|
| unless, provided that, if, even if | Condition |
| because, as, as if | Reason |
| rather than, than, whether | Choice |
| though, although, even though, but | Contrast |
| where, wherever | Location |
| in order that, so, so that, that | Result, effect |
| while, once, when, since, as whenever, | Time |
| after, before, until, as soon |
When a dependent clause introduced by a subordinating conjunction comes before the independent clause, the clauses are usually separated by a comma.
When you are in Greece, you should visit the Parthenon.(before)
You should visit the Parthenon when you are in Greece.(after)
There are three different kinds of subordinate clauses: adverb clauses, adjective clauses, and noun clauses.
An adverb clause is a dependent clause that describes a verb, adjective, or other adverb.
As with adverbs, an adverb clause answers these questions:
Where? Why? When?
To what extent? Under what condition? In what manner?
You can place an adverb clause in the beginning, middle, or end of a sentence.
An adjective clause is a dependent clause that describes nouns and pronouns. As with adjectives, an adjective clause answers these questions:
What kind? Which one? How many? How much?
Most adjective clauses start with the pronouns who, whom, why, whose, which, that, when, where.
The traffic is never light on the days when I’m in a hurry.
The adjective clause “when I’m in a hurry” describes the noun traffic.
We selected the candidates who were best qualified for the job.
The adjective clause “who were best qualified for the job” describes the noun candidates.
Adjective clauses that begin with one of the relative pronouns are called relative clauses. The relative pronouns are: who, whom, whose, which, that. Relative pronouns connect an adjective clause to the word the clause describes.
Ms. Harris, whose son is an athlete, is used to having their home filled with sporting equipment.
The relative clause “whose son is an athlete” describes the noun Ms. Harris.
The person of whom you spoke is my cousin.
The relative clause “of whom you spoke” describes the noun person.
Use who, whom (and all variations such as whoever and whomever) to refer to people. Use which and that if the antecedent is a thing or an animal.
A noun clause is a dependent clause that functions as a noun.
Tracey does whatever her parents ask her to do.
The noun clause is “whatever her parents ask her to do.”
The teacher did not accept my excuse that the dog ate my homework.
The noun clause is “that the dog ate my homework.”